How to Write a Hypothesis:

The entire experiment and research revolves around the research hypothesis (H1) and the null hypothesis (H0), so making a mistake here could ruin the whole design.

Needless to say, it can all be a little intimidating, and many students find this to be the most difficult stage of the scientific method.

In fact, it is not as difficult as it looks, and if you have followed the steps of the scientific process and found an area of research and potential research problem, then you may already have a few ideas.

It is just about making sure that you are asking the right questions and wording your hypothesis statements correctly.

The Three-Step Process:

Often, it is still quite difficult to isolate a testable hypothesis after all of the research and study. The best way is to adopt a three-step hypothesis; this will help you to narrow things down, and is the most foolproof guide to how to write a hypothesis.

Step one is to think of a general hypothesis, including everything that you have observed and reviewed during the information gathering stage of any research design. This stage is often called developing the research problem.

An Example of How to Write a Hypothesis

A worker on a fish-farm notices that his trout seem to have more fish lice in the summer, when the water levels are low, and wants to find out why. His research leads him to believe that the amount of oxygen is the reason - fish that are oxygen stressed tend to be more susceptible to disease and parasites.

He proposes a general hypothesis.

“Water levels affect the amount of lice suffered by rainbow trout.”

This is a good general hypothesis, but it gives no guide to how to design the research or experiment. The hypothesis must be refined to give a little direction.

“Rainbow trout suffer more lice when water levels are low.”

Now there is some directionality, but the hypothesis is not really testable, so the final stage is to design an experiment around which research can be designed, a testable hypothesis.

“Rainbow trout suffer more lice in low water conditions because there is less oxygen in the water.”

This is a testable hypothesis - he has established variables, and by measuring the amount of oxygen in the water, eliminating other controlled variables, such as temperature, he can see if there is a correlation against the number of lice on the fish.

This is an example of how a gradual focusing of research helps to define how to write a hypothesis.

The Next Stage - What to Do With the Hypothesis

Once you have your hypothesis, the next stage is to design the experiment, allowing a statistical analysis of data, and allowing you to test your hypothesis.

The statistical analysis will allow you to reject either the null or the alternative hypothesis. If the alternative is rejected, then you need to go back and refine the initial hypothesis or design a completely new research program.

This is part of the scientific process, striving for greater accuracy and developing ever more refined hypotheses.

Why Study Statistics?

Why Study Statistics?
Statistician is the coolest job you have never heard of. Do not take our word for it; see for yourself all the great things you can do with a career in statistics ;) :)

MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Statisticians contribute to society in many ways, from protecting endangered species and managing the impacts of climate change to making medicines more effective and reducing hunger and disease. The ways in which statisticians make the world a better place are vast and varied.

HAVE FUN
Careers in statistics are fun. You could be a “Moneyball”-style statistician who helps professional sports teams pick the next season’s new players, or a member of the data science team of a U.S. presidential campaign. The field is filled with opportunities to work on interesting problems with other smart, dynamic people.

SATISFY CURIOSITY
Statistics is a science. It involves asking questions about the world and finding answers to them in a scientific way. If you are curious about how things work, statistics is a career that will keep your curiosity piqued and your brain engaged.

MAKE MONEY
Demand for statisticians is growing, and so are their salaries. The median salary for data scientists with less than three years of experience is $80,000, and $150,000 for those with nine or more years of experience, according to the Burtch Works 2014 report.
http://burtchworks.com/pdf/Burtch_Works_Study_DS_final.pdf

Using SPSS

Using SPSS for Descriptive Statistics

SPSS is use to create histograms, frequency distributions, stem and leaf plots, Tukey box plots, calculate the standard measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), calculate the standard measures of dispersion (range, semi-interquartile range, and standard deviation / variance), and calculate measures of kurtosis and skewness. 

The Frequency Command

The frequencies command can be used to determine quartiles, percentiles, measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation,  variance, minimum and maximum), measures of kurtosis and skewness, and create histograms. The command is found at Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Frequencies (this is shorthand for clicking on the Analyze menu item at the top of the window, and then clicking on Descriptive Statistics from the drop down menu, and Frequencies from the pop up menu.

The frequencies dialog box will appear

Select the variable(s) that you want to analyze by clicking on it in the left hand pane of the frequencies dialog box. Then click on the arrow button  to move the variable into the Variables pane:

Be sure to select " Display frequency  tables" if you want a frequency distribution.  Specify which statistics you want to perform by clicking on the Statistics button. The Statistics dialog box will appear:

From the statistics dialog box, click on the desired statistics that you want to perform. To calculate a given percentile, click in the box to the left of percentile(s). Type in the desired percentile and click on the Add button. When you have selected all the desired statistics (e.g. mean, median, mode, standard deviation, variance, ragne, etc.), click on the Continue button.

Specify which chart you want to display by clicking on the Chart button. The chart dialog box will appear:

Click on the desired chart (usually Histogram) and click on the Continue button.

Click on OK in the frequencies dialog box. The SPSS Output Viewer will appear.

In the SPSS Output Viewer, you will see the requested statistics and chart. This is what the Statistics output looks like. It lists the requested measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, measures of skewness and kurtosis, and the quartiles and percentiles.

The output has two columns. The left column names the statistic and the right column gives the value of the statistic. For example, the mean of this data is 1.26 (since your data set may be different, you may get a different value.)

The skewness measure is greater than 0 when the distribution is skewed.

The kurtosis measure is 0 for a normal distribution. Positive values imply a leptokurtic distribution, while negative values imply a platykurtic distribution.

If you scroll down, you will see the frequency distributions.


If you scroll down, you will see the histogram (or whatever chart you requested.)

The Descriptives Command

The descriptives command can be used to determine measures of central tendency (mean), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance, minimum and maximum), and measures of kurtosis and skewness. The command is found at Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Descriptives (this is shorthand for clicking on the Analyze menu item at the top of the window, and then clicking on Descriptive Statistics from the drop down menu, and Descriptives from the pop up menu.



The descriptives dialog box will appear:



Select the variable(s) that you want to analyze by clicking on it in the left hand pane of the descriptives dialog box. Then click on the arrow button to move the variable into the Variables pane:



Specify which statistics you want to perform by clicking on the Options button. The Options dialog box will appear:

Select the statistics that you want by clicking on them (e.g. mean, standard deviation, variance, range, minimum, etc.). Then click on the Continue button. Click on the OK button in the Descriptives dialog box. The SPSS Output Viewer will appear with your results in it. The following is an example of the output:

The output gives the values of the requested statistics.

The Explore Command

The explore command can be used to determine measures of central tendency (mean and median), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance, minimum and maximum), measures of kurtosis and skewness, and prepare histograms, stem and leaf plots, and Tukey box plots. The command is found at Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Explore:

The explore dialog box will appear:

Select the variable(s) that you want to analyze by clicking on it in the left hand pane of the explore dialog box. Then click on the top arrow button to move the variable into the Dependent List:

Specify which plots you want to prepare by clicking on the Plots button. The Plots dialog box will appear:

Select the plots that you want by clicking on them (e.g. Stem-and-leaf and histogram). Then click on the Continue button. Click on the OK button in the Explore dialog box. The SPSS Output Viewer will appear with your results in it. The following is an example of the output for the descriptive statistics:

The output gives the values of the requested statistics. If you scroll down, you will see the requested plots:

The Tukey box plot shows the first (bottom of box) and third (top of box) quartiles (equivalently the 25th and 75th percentiles), the median (the horizontal line  in the box), the range (excluding outliers and extreme scores) (the "whiskers" or lines that extend from the box show the range), outliers (a circle represents each outlier -- the number next to the outlier is the observation number.) An outlier is defined as a score that is between 1.5 and 3 box lengths away from the upper or lower edge of the box (remember the box represents the middle 50 percent of the scores). An extreme score is defined as a score that is greater than 3 box lengths away from the upper or lower edge of the box.

Importance of Statistics

Importance Of Statistics:

Most people who aren’t business majors or math majors often wonder what they need statistics for as it seems to be something only majors similar to those would need. However, statistics plays an important role in a great number of different fields, some of which  might not have expected. Here’s a list of fields that use statistics and why it’s important to each field.

The Role of Statistics in Business

 Statistics involves making decisions, and in the business world, a person often has to make a quick decision then and there.

Using statistics, a person can plan the production according to what the customer likes and wants, and can check the quality of the products far more efficiently with statistical methods. In fact, many business activities can be completed with statistics including deciding a new location, marketing the product, and estimating what the profit will be on a new product.

The Role of Statistics in Mathematics

It should seem obvious that statistics plays a key role in mathematics considering it’s a branch of applied mathematics. However, statistics is in more than just its own separate branch of math. A person can find statistical techniques in integration, differentiation, and algebra, and you can find those in statistics as well.

Much of math is based on probability and theories, and statistical methods help make those mathematical theories that much more accurate. Using averages, dispersions, and estimation allows to come up with conclusions that are closer to the real answer than just taking a wild guess. 

The Role of Statistics in Economics

Much of economics depends on statistics. Economists use statistics to collect information, analyze data, and test hypotheses. Relationships between supply and demand and imports and exports are found using statistical information. The same can be said for figuring out the inflation rate, the per capita income, and even the national income account. A good example of statistics and economics in the real world would be the Census Bureau and the information they collect and use to decide many other political items.

The Role of Statistics in Accounting

Accounting involves mostly basic arithmetic, but when it comes to creating accounting reports, statistics plays a key role. When balancing and checking accounts, exactness is very important, but when using those reports to decide how well the company is doing and the trends within the business.

The Role of Statistics in Banking

Banks use statistics for a great number of the services they offer. A bank works on the idea that someone will deposit their money and not withdraw all of it later on. They earn their profit by lending money to others with interest, and the money they use is the money other people deposit.

Bankers use statistical approaches to estimate the number of people who will be making deposits compared to the number of people requesting loans. A great example of statistics used in banking is the FDIC’s own quarterly publication.

The Role of Statistics in Management and Administration

A nation’s government runs on statistics. They use statistical data to make their decisions regarding any number of things. Most federal and provincial budgets are designed upon statistical data because it’s the most accurate data available when estimating expected expenditures and revenue.

Another great example of statistics in the government is figuring out whether or not to raise the minimum wage due to a rise in the cost of living. Statistical data gives the government the best idea regarding whether or not the cost of living will continue to rise.

The Role of Statistics in Astronomy

It is impossible to take out a ruler and measure the distance of the Earth from the sun. Unless, of course, you somehow manage to invent a suit that can survive the temperatures of the sun and design a ruler long enough to measure such a distance. However, it would likely take you a very long time to measure such a distance anyway.

Instead, astronomers use estimates and mathematical theories to devise their best guess to just how far items in the universe are away from each other. This is why when you read a news report that a star will likely be going supernova “any day now,” you have to understand that “any day now” could mean tomorrow, a year from now, or even ten thousand years from now.

The Role of Statistics in the Natural and Social Sciences

Biology, physics, chemistry, meteorology, sociology, communication, and even information technology all use statistics. For many of these categories, the use of statistics in that field involves collecting data, analyzing it, coming up with a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.
In biology, the use of statistics within that field is known as biostatistics, biometry, or biometrics. Biostatistics often involves the design of experiments in medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, and fishery. It also involves collecting, summarizing, and analyzing the data received from those experiments as well as the decided results. Medical biostatistics is a separate branch that deals mainly with medicine and health.
Physics uses probability theory and statistics dealing mainly with the estimation of large populations. In fact, the phenomenological results of thermodynamics were developed using the mechanics of statistics.
There are further examples of statistics in these sciences fields including analytical chemistry, which involves the presentation of problems in data analysis and demonstrating steps to solve them. Meteorology uses statistics in stochastic-dynamic prediction, weather forecasting, probability forecasting, and a number of other fields.
Sociology uses statistics to describe, explain, and predict from data received. Like many of the sciences, communication uses statistical methods to communicate data received. Information technology also uses statistics to predict particular outcomes.

Famous Statistician

Florence Nightingale David 

 

Florence Nightingale David, also known as F. N. David (23 August 1909 – 23 July 1993) was an English statistician, born in Ivington, Herefordshire, England. She was named after Florence Nightingale, who was a friend of her parents.

Florence Nightingale David, a great statistician and a fighter for increasing women’s roles in the sciences, began her career as a research assistant in Karl Pearson’s laboratory.   During World War II, she became an experimental officer and senior statistician for the Research and Experiments Department, and was scientific advisor on mines for the military.  David felt that the war gave women more opportunities and that conditions for them are now better because of it.  After serving as a lecturer and professor at University College for many years, in 1970 she was offered the chair of statistics at the University of California at Riverside. David read mathematics at Bedford College for Women in London. After graduation, she worked for the eminent statistician Karl Pearson at University College, London as his research student. She calculated the distribution of correlation coefficients, producing in 1938 her first book, Tables of the correlation coefficient.

Causes of Poverty in Pakistan

People interested to listening and watching news, it is good thing to listen and watch news. People usually likes listening spacially good news but in Pakistan nowadays they listen in news some unusual things. In 2011, there was flood coming in Pakistan, which destroy many houses and the properties of people. It makes above hundred people homeless and create the poverty in their life. Everybody, in this world is much familiar about the word poverty. If they don’t know the meaning of poverty but they listen this word in their life many times either it is related to their lives or not. In simple words poverty means lack of money. In other words,  poverty is that where a person has not enough money to complete his basic needs and wants. The basic needs include food, shelter, cloths, health, education and extra. In this world there are many countries, areas and families suffering from poverty. 

Pakistan has been suffering from this problem 1947, when it came into existence. According to the situation of Pakistan, Pakistanis define poverty as a situation where a person does not have enough money to survive. For example, food is one of the main things to people needs to live. In Pakistan there are many places where people do not get clean water to drink and they do not have food to eat. Approximately 0.25% dies annually due to lack of food and do not getting clean water. There are many reasons which become a cause of poverty in Pakistan the history, Natural disaster, Lack of education and the lack of concentration of Pakistan government.

The major reason of poverty in Pakistan is the history of Pakistan. Before 1947 Pakistan, India and Bangladesh were one country. Due to different miss understanding they were distributed in there different countries. Initially Pakistan and India distributed into two countries. They distributed the economy of Barsagar (the name of the country before distribution of Pakistan and India). According to history of Pakistan it tells people that at that time Pakistani do not get their rights. Thus they had faced financial problems. After that the stuffs which they have, they start it to use and improve their economy. But unfortunately they improved and come out from the poverty they had face other problem. The problem is that Bangladeshi’s wants their county so it separate from Pakistan in 1971. Hence history is the main cause due to which Pakistan faced the poverty.

The second cause of poverty in Pakistan is natural disaster. Natural disaster means the people who are affected from the flood, earthquake, tornado and etc. in recent years Pakistan effected from earth quake and flood.  Gilgit Baltistan was affected from the flood in 2010, which become a cause to increase in poverty in Pakistan. In 2011 there were many areas where flood came and it destroys above thousand houses. Due to which above three thousand people become homeless, some of them lose their whole property and some of them lost their families. Therefore the natural disaster is also main cause to have poverty in Pakistan.

The third cause of poverty in Pakistan is the lack of education. There are many reasons to lack of education in Pakistan. The first main point is that In Pakistan there are some areas where no schools, colleges, and universities. The second reason is that Parents haves not enough money to send their children in cities and give them education. If there are schools then parents have not much money to provide books, uniform and fee of school on each month. Some parents try their best to get education their child and they sell their properties to give education to their children.  In Pakistan there are some places where schools and parents have enough money to provide education to their children. But parents do not went to get education their children specially girls. Therefore if a person is not educated then how he does a job and how he improve himself financially? Consequently, the people who are in poverty last 50 years they are still in poverty because of not providing education. Thus education is the main cause of poverty.

Effects of Unemployment on People

Imagine, there is a person and his best friend has come to his house.There is nothing to serve his friend, he wants to get something but he couldn’t or his child wants to buy toys and he couldn’t buy it for him, Have he ever thought why it is happing with him? Why he couldn’t able to buy something for his friend if there-is nothing at home, he can buy something from market to his friend and why he is not buying toys to his child? Why? Because he does not have money, he didn’t use his skills to earn money or may be lack of money all these things are known as unemployment. In other words we can say that “Unemployment” is that where a person has not enough money to survive. The unemployment rate exist with different definitions concerning who is an "unemployed person" and who is in the'\
 "labor force." unemployed workers who have become discouraged by a tough labor market and are no longer looking for work. The various schools of economic thought differ on their explanation of the cause of unemployment. There is a “natural rate” of unemployment because the skills of laborers and the positions available are slightly out of sync even under the best economic conditions. In this world there are many people who are suffering from this problem. The people who are suffering from unemployment are; the employed person, his family and his community. 

The major part which the unemployment effects is the person who is unemployed. Its effect on the unemployed person differently; he become unhealthy, angry, unconfident and extras. Consequently, either he is a single or married the unemployed person depend on the other family members. Suppose he is living his brother house, then he does not feel good to eat, even if he ate he does not eat that much, how much his body wants. Sometimeshe thought that he should less eat May it decrease the other person budget that thing loss his health. Some of other unemployed people just thinking and taking tension. They do not want to do the small job like if they got a job and there they do not get enough money than they did not do that job. Some of the unemployed become hyper and rude they do not want to listen to others if somebody gives them suggestion to do that job, it is nice to give suggestion but they do not want to understand theother people. Some of them waste their time in home and do not do any work which effect on their health and they do not become active. Thus they start thinking like that they are not able, they have not ability which loss there confidence and he is unable to express his views and thoughts. Unemployment affects the life of person differently like his health he become rude and hyper.

Unemployment not only effect on that person it also effect on his family either he is married or single. Suppose there is a 25-years old men and he has not a job. Yes, it is the responsibility the parent to fulfill his needs and wants but in the limited age(22 and less). Many parents help the children how much he is old but other people does not. Suppose he has no parents they died then it has become very difficult to others to fulfill his needs , initially they do it happily after that it become hard to them. In the other hand the married person who has not a job it become very difficult for him to survive in this world .Suppose that he has children then he has many responsibilities to complete them. One responsibility is the wife and the other responsibility is the children. So he is the responsible to give food, shelter, health, clothing, education and extras.

Finally, unemployment can affect the citizen of a country. An unemployed person is not able to educate his children, which creates a generation of uneducated people- who in turn, will have no understanding of the world and how it works.This will also effect on country economy. Therefore cycle of economy is as: the economy cycle undergo four stages: expansion, prosperity, contraction, and recession. After a  phase, the expansionary phase can start again. The phases of the economy cycle are characterized by changing employment, industrial productivity, and interest rates. Some economists believe that stock price trends precede economy cycle stages. Thus these all things also effects on his family members and as well as the society people suffer from this problem.

There are many people who are affected from unemployment.Unemploymentis not only affected on the person who is unemployed, it consequently effect on his family members and his community too. The unemployed person should listen the other people and try to walk that path and use his skillsand experience. Therefore “practice makes men perfect”. He should do that jobwhere he get some money according to him that is not enough for him as, “something is better than nothing”.